Preface xiii
1 R&D Organizations and Research Categories 1
1.1 How Information can be Used 2
1.2 A Perspective on R&D Management 5
1.3 What is Research and Development? 6
1.4 Research Categories 8
1.5 What to Research 10
1.6 Emphasis on Basic Versus Applied Research 16
1.7 What is Unique About Managing R&D Organizations? 17
1.8 Summary 19
1.9 Questions for Class Discussion 19
2 Elements Needed for an R&D Organization 20
2.1 People 20
2.2 Specialization 22
2.3 Staffing 23
2.4 Ideas 24
2.5 Defects in Human Information Processing 28
2.6 Fads in Science 30
2.7 Communication Networks 31
2.8 The Innovation Process 34
2.9 Funds 34
2.10 A Culture for R&D Organizations 36
2.11 Not-Invented-Here Syndrome 38
2.12 Fit of Person and Job 40
2.13 Creative Tensions: Managing Antithesis and Ambiguity 41
2.14 Develop a Climate of Participation 44
2.15 Summary 45
2.16 Questions for Class Discussion 46
3 Creating a Productive and Effective R&D Organization 47
3.1 Organization Effectiveness 47
3.2 Who are the Inventors and Innovators? 52
3.3 Odd Characteristics of Inventors and Innovators 58
3.4 Researcher's Relationship with Management and Peers 59
3.5 Formation of Teams 60
3.6 Generating New Ideas 64
3.7 Emphases on Aspects of Organizational Culture 68
3.8 Ethos of A Scientific Community 69
3.9 Summary 71
3.10 Questions for Class Discussion 71
4 Job Design and Organizational Effectiveness 72
4.1 Job Attributes 73
4.2 Physical Location and Communication 74
4.3 Career Paths 76
4.4 Dual and Triple Hierarchies 78
4.5 Centralization and Decentralization 80
4.6 Keeping the Researcher at the Innovation Stage 81
4.7 Job Design and Conflict 83
4.8 Summary 86
4.9 Questions for Class Discussion 87
5 Influencing People 88
5.1 Attitude Attitude Change 89
5.2 Findings from Attitude Research 90
5.3 Behavioral Science Division Case 92
5.4 Case Analysis 94
5.5 Communication Alternatives and Outcomes 95
5.6 Summary 101
5.7 Questions for Class Discussion 102
6 Motivation in R&D Organizations 103
6.1 A Model of Human Behavior 104
6.2 Changing the Reward System to Support Technical Careers 112
6.3 Structuring the Organization for Optimal Communication 113
6.4 Rewards and Motivation 114
6.5 Reward System Discussion 116
6.6 Sense of Control and Community 119
6.7 A Federal R&D Laboratory Case 121
6.8 Summary 122
6.9 Questions for Class Discussion 122
7 Dealing with Diversity in R&D Organizations 123
7.1 Assimilation and Multiculturalism 124
7.2 Understanding Culture 126
7.3 Cultural Differences 128
7.4 What Happens When People from Different Cultures Work Together? 129
7.5 Cultural Distance 130
7.6 Cultural Intelligence and Related Concepts 130
7.7 A Model for Diversity in Groups 132
7.8 The Status of Minorities in Work Groups 135
7.9 Dealing with People from Different Disciplines, Organizational Levels and Functions 136
7.10 Intercultural Training 136
7.11 Summary 139
7.12 Questions for Class Discussion 139
8 Leadership in R&D Organizations 140
8.1 Identifying Your Leadership Style 142
8.2 Theories of Leadership and Leadership Styles 151
8.3 Leadership in R&D Organizations 154
8.4 R&D Leadership: A Process of Mutual Influence 157
8.5 A Leadership-Style Case 158
8.6 Leadership in a Creative Research Environment 160
8.7 Summary 161
8.8 Questions for Class Discussion 163
9 Managing Conflict in R&D Organizations 164
9.1 Conflict Within Individuals 164
9.2 Conflict Between Individuals 169
9.3 Conflict Between Groups 171
9.4 Intercultural Conflict 177
9.5 Personal Styles of Conflict Resolution 179
9.6 Unique Issues of Conflict in R&D Organizations 181
9.7 Ethics 183
9.8 Summary 183
9.9 Questions for Class Discussion 184
10 Performance Appraisal-Employee Contribution-In R&D Organizations 185
10.1 Some Negative Connotations of Performance Appraisal 185
10.2 Difficulties with Employee Appraisal 187
10.3 Performance Appraisal and the Management System 189
10.4 Performance Appraisal and Organizational Stages 190
10.5 Performance Appraisal and Organization Productivity 190
10.6 Goals of Engineers Versus Scientists 191
10.7 Performance Appraisal and Monetary Rewards 192
10.8 Performance Appraisal in Practice 194
10.9 A University Department Case 195
10.10 Implementation Strategy with Emphasis on Employee Contribution 196
10.11 Summary 203
10.12 Questions for Class Discussion 203
10.13 Appendix: Argonne National Laboratory Performance Review Information 204
11 Technology Transfer 213
11.1 Technology Transfer Hypotheses 214
11.2 Stages of Technology Transfer 214
11.3 Approaches and Factors Affecting Technology Transfer 216
11.4 Role of the User 218
11.5 Characteristics of Innovation and its Diffusion 220
11.6 Role of People 222
11.7 Boundary Spanning 223
11.8 Organizational Issues in Technology Transfer 226
11.9 The Agricultural Extension Model 227
11.10 NASA Technology Transfer Programs 228
11.11 IBM Technology Transfer Cases 229
11.12 Technology Transfer Strategy 231
11.13 Summary 236
11.14 Questions for Class Discussion 237
12 Models for Implementing Incremental and Radical Innovation 238
12.1 Defining Innovation 239
12.2 Strategic Choices in Technological Innovation 242
12.3 Making Technological Innovation Operational 244
12.4 The Market Marketers, and Market Research in Technological Innovation 249
12.5 Leading Innovative Organizations 253
12.6 Summary 254
12.7 Questions for Class Discussion 256
13 Organizational Change in R&D Settings 257
13.1 Why Organizational Change? 258
13.2 Steps in Organizational Change 259
13.3 Problems and Action Steps 259
13.4 Individual Change 262
13.5 Group Change: Team Building 264
13.6 Organizational Change 267
13.7 Evaluating Organizational Change 268
13.8 Case Study in Organizational Change 270
13.9 Summary 273
13.10 Questions for Class Discussion 273
14 Managing the Network of Technological Innovation 274
14.1 Overall Trends Within and Between Sectors 274
14.2 Trends in Research, Development, and Innovation in the Commercial Realm 276
14.3 Trends in Research, Development, and Innovation in the Federal Government 279
14.4 Trends in Research, Development, and Innovation in Universities 286
14.5 Open Innovation, Regional Economic Development, and the Global Innovation Network 290
14.6 Summary 294
14.7 Questions For Class Discussion 295
15 Universities and Basic Research 296
15.1 Basis for University Research Activities 297
15.2 Federal Support of University Research: An Entitlement or a Means to Achieve National Goals? 298
15.3 Basic Research: Who Needs It? 301
15.4 University-Industry Linkage 309
15.5 Rethinking Investment in Basic Research 311
15.6 Summary and Concluding Comments 312
15.7 Questions for Class Discussion 313
16 R&D Organizations and Strategy 315
16.1 What is Strategy? 316
16.2 Strategy Levels and Perspectives 319
16.3 Strategy Formulation and Implementation 319
16.4 Strategy Evaluation 321
16.5 Strategy and Innovation 322
16.6 Technology and Strategy 324
16.7 Applying a Strategy Process 325
16.8 Summary 330
16.9 Questions for Class Discussion 330
17 Research Development and Science Policy 331
17.1 Relationship Between Science and Technology 334
17.2 Technical Innovation and Economic Development 336
17.3 Analysis of Investment in Basic Research 339
17.4 R&D Expenditure 340
17.5 R&D Productivity 347
17.6 Global Perspectives on Innovation 352
17.7 R&D Expenditure and Science Policy 357
17.8 Summary 362
17.9 Questions for Class Discussion 363
References 364
Author Index 383
Subject Index 387
