Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xv
Part I Security Analysis 1
1 Compound Interest 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Accumulated values 3
1.3 Effective and nominal rates of interest 5
1.4 The accumulated value of an annuity-certain 7
1.5 Present values 8
1.6 The present value of an annuity-certain 10
1.7 Investment project analysis 15
1.8 Net present value 15
1.9 Internal rate of return 16
1.10 Discounted payback period 17
1.11 Analysis of decision criteria 19
1.12 Sensitivity analysis 19
Annex 1.1 Exponents 20
Annex 1.2 Geometric series 21
2 Fixed-interest Bonds 25
2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 Types of bond 25
2.3 Accrued interest 26
2.4 Present value of payments 28
2.5 Interest yield 28
2.6 Simple yield to maturity 29
2.7 Gross redemption yield 29
2.8 Net redemption yield 32
2.9 Holding period return 33
2.10 Volatility 33
2.11 Duration 35
2.12 The relationship between duration and volatility 35
2.13 Convexity 36
2.14 Yield curves 36
2.15 The expectations theory 37
2.16 The liquidity preference theory 38
2.17 The market segmentation theory 39
2.18 Inflation risk premium 39
2.19 Par yield curves 39
2.20 Spot and forward interest rates 39
2.21 Spot rates and redemption yields 40
2.22 Strips 41
2.23 Corporate bonds 42
3 Equities and Real Estate 43
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Discounted dividend model 43
3.3 Investment ratios 46
3.4 Scrip issues and stock splits 47
3.5 Rights issues 49
3.6 Market efficiency 51
3.7 Real estate 53
3.8 Yield gaps 57
4 Real Returns 59
4.1 Introduction 59
4.2 The calculation of real returns given a constant rate of inflation 59
4.3 Valuation of a series of cash flows given a constant rate of inflation 60
4.4 The relationship between real and nominal yields 62
4.5 Estimation of the rate of inflation 63
4.6 Real returns from equity investments 63
4.7 Estimation of equity values for a given real rate of return 67
4.8 Calculating real returns with varying rates of inflation 68
5 Index-linked Bonds 73
5.1 Introduction 73
5.2 Characteristics of index-linked bonds 73
5.3 Index-linked bonds: simple case 75
5.4 Index-linked bonds: a more general approach 75
5.5 The effect of indexation lags 79
5.6 A further generalisation of the model 80
5.7 Holding period returns 82
5.8 Accrued interest 84
5.9 The real yield gap 84
5.10 Estimating market expectations of inflation 86
5.10.1 Index-linked and conventional bonds: basic relationships 86
5.10.2 Problems with the simple approach to estimating inflation expectations 88
5.10.3 Solving the problem of internal consistency: break-even inflation rates 88
5.10.4 Solving the problem of differing durations 90
5.10.5 Forward and spot inflation expectations 90
6 Foreign Currency Investments 93
6.1 Introduction 93
6.2 Exchange rates 93
6.3 Exchanges rates, inflation rates and interest rates 94
6.4 Covered interest arbitrage 95
6.5 The operation of speculators 96
6.6 Purchasing power parity theory 98
6.7 The international Fisher effect 98
6.8 Interactions between exchange rates, interest rates and inflation 99
6.9 International bond investment 102
6.10 International equity investment 104
6.11 Foreign currency hedging 104
7 Derivative Securities 107
7.1 Introduction 107
7.2 Forward and futures contracts 107
7.2.1 Pricing of forwards and futures 108
7.2.2 Forward pricing on a security paying no income 109
7.2.3 Forward pricing on a security paying a known cash income 110
7.2.4 Forward pricing on assets requiring storage 112
7.2.5 Stock index futures 112
7.2.6 Basis relationships 113
7.2.7 Bond futures 114
7.3 Swap contracts 116
7.3.1 Comparative advantage argument for swaps market 116
7.3.2 Pricing interest rate swap contracts 117
7.3.3 Using swaps in risk management 118
7.4 Option contracts 119
7.4.1 Payoff diagrams for options 120
7.4.2 Intrinsic value and time value 121
7.4.3 Factors affecting option prices 122
Part II Statistics for Investment 125
8 Describing Investment Data 127
8.1 Introduction 127
8.2 Data sources 127
8.3 Sampling and data types 128
8.4 Data presentation 129
8.4.1 Frequency tables 129
8.4.2 Cumulative frequency tables 131
8.4.3 Bar charts 131
8.4.4 Histograms 132
8.4.5 Stem and leaf plots 135
8.4.6 Pie charts 136
8.4.7 Time series graphs 140
8.4.8 Cumulative frequency graphs 141
8.4.9 Scatter diagrams 141
8.4.10 The misrepresentation of data 143
8.5 Descriptive statistics 145
8.5.1 Arithmetic mean 145
8.5.2 Median 147
8.5.3 Mode 147
8.5.4 Link between the mean, median and mode 147
8.5.5 Weighted average 148
8.5.6 Geometric mean 149
8.5.7 Range 149
8.5.8 Inter-quartile range 150
8.5.9 Mean deviation (from the mean) 150
8.5.10 Sample variance 151
8.5.11 Sample standard deviation 151
8.5.12 Coefficient of variation 151
9 Modelling Investment Returns 153
9.1 Introduction 153
9.2 Probability 153
9.2.1 Relative frequency definition of probability 153
9.2.2 Subjective probability 154
9.2.3 The addition rule 154
9.2.4 Mutually exclusive events 154
9.2.5 Conditional probability 155
9.2.6 Independent events 155
9.2.7 Complementary events 156
9.2.8 Bayes' theorem 156
9.3 Probability distributions 158
9.3.1 Cumulative distribution function (c.d.f.) 159
9.3.2 The mean and variance of probability distributions 160
9.3.3 Expected values of probability distributions 160
9.3.4 Properties of the expected value 161
9.3.5 The general linear transformation 162
9.3.6 Variance 162
9.3.7 Covariance 163
9.3.8 Moments of random variables 163
9.3.9 Probability density function (p.d.f.) 163
9.4 The binomial distribution 165
9.5 The normal distribution 166
9.5.1 The standard normal distribution 167
9.6 The normal approximation to the binomial 169
9.6.1 Binomial proportions 171
9.7 The lognormal distribution 171
9.8 The concept of probability applied to investment returns 172
9.9 Some useful probability results 173
9.10 Accumulation of investments using a stochastic approach: one time period 175
9.11 Accumulation of single investments with independent rates of return 177
9.12 The accumulation of annual investments with independent rates of return 179
Annex 9.1 Properties of the expected value 185
Annex 9.2 Properties of the variance 186
10 Estimating Parameters and Hypothesis Testing 187
10.1 Introduction 187
10.2 Unbiased estimators 187
10.3 Confidence interval for the mean 188
10.4 Levels of confidence 191
10.5 Small samples 191
10.6 Confidence interval for a proportion 193
10.7 Classical hypothesis testing 194
10.8 Type I and Type II errors 196
10.9 Power 196
10.10 Operating characteristic 197
10.11 Hypothesis test for a proportion 198
10.12 Some problems with classical hypothesis testing 199
10.13 An alternative to classical hypothesis testing: the use of p-values 200
10.14 Statistical and practical significance 201
Annex 10.1 Standard error of the sample mean 202
11 Measuring and Testing Comovements in Returns 203
11.1 Introduction 203
11.2 Correlation 203
11.3 Measuring linear association 203
11.4 Pearson's product moment correlation coefficient 205
11.5 Covariance and the population correlation coefficient 207
11.6 Spearman's rank correlation coefficient 207
11.7 Pearson's versus Spearman's 208
11.8 Non-linear association 209
11.9 Outliers 210
11.10 Significance test for r 211
11.11 Significance test for Spearman's rank correlation coefficient 213
11.12 Simple linear regression 213
11.13 The least-squares regression line 214
11.14 The Least-squares Regression Line of X on Y 217
11.15 Prediction intervals for the conditional mean 220
11.16 The coefficient of determination 222
11.17 Residuals 224
11.18 Multiple regression 226
11.19 A warning 226
Part III Applications 227
12 Modern Portfolio Theory and Asset Pricing 229
12.1 Introduction 229
12.2 Expected return and risk for a portfolio of two investments 229
12.3 Expected return and risk for a portfolio of many investments 234
12.4 The efficient frontier 235
12.5 Indifference curves and the optimum portfolio 236
12.6 Practical application of the Markowitz model 237
12.7 The Market Model 237
12.8 Estimation of expected returns and risks 240
12.9 Portfolio selection models incorporating liabilities 240
12.10 Modern portfolio theory and international diversification 243
12.11 The Capital Asset Pricing Model 245
12.12 International CAPM 254
12.13 Arbitrage Pricing Theory 257
12.14 Downside measures of risk 262
12.15 Markowitz semi-variance 264
12.16 Mean semi-variance efficient frontiers 265
Annex 12.1 Using Excel to calculate efficient frontiers 266
13 Market Indices 271
13.1 Introduction 271
13.2 Equity indices 271
13.3 Bond indices 279
13.4 Ex-dividend adjustment 280
13.5 Calculating total return indices within a calendar year 281
13.6 Net and gross indices 282
13.7 Commercial real estate indices 283
13.7.1 US real estate indices 283
14 Portfolio Performance Measurement 285
14.1 Introduction 285
14.2 Money-weighted rate of return 285
14.3 Time-weighted rate of return 287
14.4 Linked internal rate of return 291
14.5 Notional funds 292
14.6 Consideration of risk 294
14.7 Information ratios 298
14.8 Survivorship bias 299
14.9 Transitions 301
15 Bond Analysis 303
15.1 Introduction 303
15.2 Volatility 303
15.3 Duration 304
15.4 The relationship between volatility and duration 305
15.5 Factors affecting volatility and duration 308
15.6 Convexity 309
15.7 Non-government bonds 314
15.8 Some applications of the concepts of volatility and duration 315
15.9 The theory of immunisation 317
15.10 Some practical issues with immunisation and matching 320
16 Option Pricing Models 323
16.1 Introduction 323
16.2 Stock options 323
16.3 The riskless hedge 324
16.4 Risk neutrality 325
16.5 A more general binomial model 329
16.6 The value of p 330
16.7 Estimating the parameters u, and n 331
16.8 The Black-Scholes model 333
16.9 Call options 334
16.10 Computational considerations 338
16.11 Put options 339
16.12 Volatility 342
16.13 Estimation of volatility from historical data 342
16.14 Implied volatility 343
16.15 Put=call parity 344
16.16 Adjustments for known dividends 347
16.17 Put=call parity with known dividends 349
16.18 American-style options 350
16.19 Option trading strategies 351
16.20 Stock index options 357
16.21 Bond options 357
16.22 Futures options 358
16.23 Currency options 358
16.24 Exotic options 359
Annex 16.1 The heuristic derivation of the Black-Scholes model 359
17 Stochastic Investment Models 365
17.1 Introduction 365
17.2 Persistence in economic series 367
17.3 Autocorrelation 371
17.4 The random walk model 374
17.5 Autoregressive models 376
17.6 ARIMA models 380
17.7 ARCH models 381
17.8 Asset-liability modelling 384
17.9 The Wilkie model 385
17.10 A note on calibration 388
17.11 Interest rate modelling 388
17.12 Value at risk 391
Compound Interest Tables 399
Student's t Distribution: Critical Points 408
Areas in the Right-hand Tail of the Normal Distribution 409
Index 411
