Social Cognitive Theory - An Agentic Perspective on Human Nature An Agentic Perspective on Human Nature

Author Biography ix
Foreword xi
Preface xxiii

1 A Psychology of Human Agency 1
On Agency and "Free Will" 2
Nonagentic Approaches in Contemporary Psychology 2
Agency, Consciousness, and the Brain 3
Core Properties of Human Agency 6
Forethought 6
Self-Reactiveness 6
Self-Reflection 7
Three Modes of Human Agency 8
Causal Processes: Triadic Codetermination 9
Triadic Codetermination and Determinism 11
The Development of Agency 13
Self as Agent 13
Construction of Selfhood 14
Self Identity 15
Agency in Diverse Cultural Settings 16
The Growing Primacy of Human Agency in Diverse Spheres of Life 19
Growing Primacy of Human Agency in the Process of Coevolution 22
Human Agency and the Field of Psychology 25

2 Social Modeling and Psychological Processes of Observational Learning 27
Differentiation of Modeling Phenomena 29
"Imitation" and "Identification" 29
Modeling 30
Prior Explanatory Accounts of Modeling Phenomena 33
Social Cognitive Theory of Observational Learning 34
Attentional Processes 35
Retention Processes 37
Motoric Reproduction Processes 40
Motivational Processes 41
Theoretical Contrasts 43
Scope of Modeling Influences 45
Language Acquisition 46
Moral Judgment 48
Gender Development 48
Aggression 49
Vicarious Affective Learning 51

3 Perceived Self-Efficacy as a Foundation of Agency 53
Exercise of Agency Through Self-Belief of Efficacy 53
Concepualizing Self-Efficacy Beliefs 54
From Self-Efficacy to Action: A Multiprocess Analysis 55
Selection Processes 55
Cognitive Processes 57Motivational Processes 58
Affective Processes 60
Self-Efficacy Causality 64
Meta-Analytic Results 64
Altering Self-Efficacy Beliefs Directly, Without Enactive Experience 65
Relating Self-Efficacy Beliefs to Future Performance While Controlling for Past Performance 69
On Self-Efficacy Scales 73
Boosting Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Sources of Self-Efficacy Information 76
Performance Accomplishments 76
Vicarious Experiences 76
Verbal Persuasion 77
Emotional Arousal and Somatic State 77
Organizational Effectiveness 78
Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Cognitive Performance Among Older Adults 80

4 Shaping One's Future through Self-Regulation 83
Three Broad Classes of Motivation 84
Goal-Directed Action, Goal Effects, and Goal Theory 86
Goal Specificity 86
Goal Challenge 87
Distal and Proximal Goals 88
Self-Referent Processes in Goal Motivation 89
Affective Self-Evaluative Reactions 89
Perceived Self-Efficacy 89
Self-Set Goals 90
Documenting the Engagement of Self-Influences in Goal Motivation 91
Goal Properties and the Differential Engagement of Self-Processes 95\
Affective Consequences of Goal Discrepancies 100
Self-Regulatory Processes, Education, and Occupational Opportunities 103
Self-Efficacy Beliefs, Aspirations, and Career Trajectories 103
Aspirational Standards, Achievement Motives, and External Incentives 104
Concluding Comment 106

5 Morality and the Disengagement of Moral Standards 107
Stage Theories of Moral Reasoning 108
Hierarchical Moral Superiority 109
Evaluating the Claims of Stage Theories 112
Social Foundations of Moral Standards 114
Multifaceted Nature of Moral Judgment and Action 116
Cognitive Conflict as the Automotivator for Change 117
Moral Judgment As Application of Multidimensional Rules 121
Relation Between Moral Reasoning and Conduct 123
Self-Regulatory Mechanisms in Moral Agency 124
Psychological Subfunctions in the Self-Regulation of Moral Conduct 124
Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Moral Conduct 125
Interplay Between Personal and Social Sanctions 126
Selective Activation and Disengagement of Moral Standards 128
Moral Justification 128
Euphemistic Labeling 130
Advantageous Comparison 130
Displacement and Diffusion of Responsibility 131
Disregard or Distortion of Consequences 132
Dehumanization 133
Assessing the Set of Moral Disengagement Mechanisms 133
Power of Humanization 134

6 Applying Science for Human Betterment 135
Social Cognitive Theory and Health Promotion 135
Health Promotion Systems Founded on Self-Regulation Principles 136
Health Promotion through Self-Management 137
Self-Management of Chronic Diseases 140
Internet-Based Health Promotion Systems 141
Macrosocial Applications Addressing Urgent Global Problems 142
Televised Modeling for Society-Wide Change 143
Cultural and Value Analyses 144
Elements of Enabling Serials 145
Global Applications 146
Modification of Consummatory Lifestyles 151

Concluding Remarks 152
References 153
Author Index 193
Subject Index 203