Preface xv
1 Acid Gas Injection from Startup to Stability- A Recap of 3 Years of Operation and Troubleshooting 1
Loni van der Lee, Jordan Watson, Laura Creanga and James van der Lee
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Startup: Ideal vs. Actual 4
1.3 Pump Diaphragm Failures 6
1.4 Corrosion 7
1.5 Acid Gas Sampling 9
1.6 Acid Gas Simulation 9
1.7 Acid Gas Compression Modeling 11
1.8 Summary 16
2 Acid Gas Disposal-A View from the Trenches 19
Kristopher Kruse
2.1 Introduction 20
2.2 Plant Process 21
2.3 Acid Gas Compressor 23
2.4 Injection Wells 25
2.5 Operational Learnings 26
2.5.1 Cooler Plugging 27
2.5.2 Wellhead Sealing 28
2.5.3 Wellhead Valve Stem Weeping 28
2.5.4 Elastomer Leak at Packer 29
2.5.5 Startup Issues 30
2.5.6 Amine Foaming 32
2.6 Key Design Considerations 32
2.6.1 Importance of Team 33
2.7 Summary 34
3 Pipestone Acid Gas Injection System 35
Rinat Yarmukhametov, James R. Maddocks, Tim Oldham and Dan Simons
3.1 Acid Gas System Description 36
3.2 Acid Gas Pipelines 37
3.2.1 Environmental and Social Impact Assessment of Pipelines 37
3.2.2 Acid Gas Pipeline Risk Mitigation Steps 37
3.2.3 Emergency Planning Zones (EPZ) 38
3.2.4 Acid Gas Pipeline De-Inventory and Filling Procedures 38
3.3 Pipeline Leak Detection 38
3.3.1 Operational and Emergency De-Inventory of Acid Gas Pipelines 40
3.4 Acid Gas Injection Pump Design 43
3.5 Relief System Design 44
3.5.1 Thermal Relief in Acid Gas Applications 44
3.5.2 Process Piping Criteria/Considerations for Determining Thermal Relief Needs 44
3.5.3 Thermal Relief Mitigation Strategies in Valves 45
3.5.4 External Body Cavity Thermal Relief System 46
3.5.5 Additional Thermal Relief Mitigation Strategies 48
3.6 Relief Valve Selection for AGI Pump Discharge Piping Protection 48
3.7 AGI Pumps and Injection Well Control 49
3.8 Process Hazard Analysis and SIL-Rated System Considerations 51
3.9 Conclusion 53
Acknowledgment 53
4 Acid Gas Injection Case Study for the Iraqi Region of Kurdistan 55
Mariana Alvis and Federico Games
4.1 Introduction 55
4.2 Methodology 57
4.2.1 Container Selection 57
4.2.2 Containment 59
4.2.3 Injectivity 61
4.2.4 Well and System Flow Modeling 62
4.2.5 Injector Well(s) 63
4.2.6 Surface Facilities Strategy 64
4.3 Results 65
4.4 Acknowledgments 69
4.5 Nomenclature 70
References 70
5 The Success Story of Acid Gas Injection (AGI) in WCSB: The Past, The Present, The Future 73
Mohammad Tavallali, Robyn Swanson, Norbert Alwast, Vadim Milovanov and Ashley Anderson
5.1 Introduction 74
5.2 Geology 76
5.2.1 Keg River Formation 76
5.2.2 Pardonet/Baldonnel Formation 79
5.2.3 Belloy Formation 79
5.2.4 Halfway Formation 80
5.2.5 Nisku Formation 80
5.2.6 Leduc Formation 81
5.3 Wellbore Design Consideration 81
5.3.1 Wellbore Damage Mechanisms Encountered During AGI 81
5.3.2 AGI Wellbore Damage Prevention and Control 82
5.3.3 Well Construction and Monitoring Considerations 83
5.4 Screening, Ranking, and Storage Potential Estimation 83
5.5 AGI Outlook 88
5.6 Application Evolution 88
5.6.1 Alberta 89
5.6.2 Saskatchewan 89
5.6.3 British Columbia 90
5.6.4 AGI Comparison Between Canada and USA 90
5.6.5 CCUS Comparison Between Canada and USA 91
5.7 Conclusions 91
References 93
6 Hydrates of Carbon Dioxide-A Review of Experimental Data 97
Bogdan Ambröek and Eugene Grynia
6.1 Introduction 97
6.2 Reviewed Literature 98
6.3 Experimental Techniques 107
6.4 Description of the Research Work 109
6.5 Experimental Data Comparison and Analysis 168
6.6 Conclusions 179
References 184
7 Comparison of Models to Data for Phase Equilibria and Properties of CO 2 + Contaminant Systems 189
Wayne D. Monnery
7.1 Introduction 189
7.2 Previous Review Work 190
7.3 Property and Vapor-Liquid Equilibria Comparison Results 192
7.3.1 Density 192
7.3.2 Specific Heat Capacity 194
7.3.3 Viscosity 195
7.3.4 Thermal Conductivity 197
7.3.5 Vapor-Liquid Equilibria 198
7.4 Property and VLE Prediction Conclusions 199
7.5 Implication to Process Design 201
7.5.1 Liquid Chemical Absorption Process 201
7.5.2 Compression and Pumping 202
7.5.3 Heat Exchange 202
7.5.4 Pipelines 202
7.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 203
References 203
8 Numerical Investigation and Prediction of Critical Points of CO 2 Binary Mixtures Using GERG- 2008 205
Eduardo Luna-Ortiz
8.1 Introduction 205
8.2 GERG and Critical Loci 206
8.3 Key Results, Observations, and Discussion 207
8.4 Summary 210
References 211
9 Alkanolamines-What is Next? 213
Jörn Rolker and Joe Lally
9.1 Introduction 213
9.2 New Amine Components for Acid Gas Treating 215
9.3 Operating Experience 221
9.4 Conclusion 231
References 231
10 Anhydrous Triethanolamine as a Solvent for Gases 233
A.E. Mather, F.-Y. Jou and K.A.G. Schmidt
10.1 Introduction 233
10.2 Results and Discussion 234
10.3 Conclusions 237
Acknowledgment 237
References 237
11 CCUS via CO 2 Compression with Reciprocating Compressors 241
Patrick Campbell
11.1 Introduction 241
11.2 What is a Reciprocating Compressor? 242
11.3 Material Selection 243
11.4 Gas Properties 244
11.5 Equipment Selection 247
11.6 Conclusion 248
12 Process and Design Aspects of Diaphragm Pumps 249
Rüdiger Bullert
Nomenclature 250
12.1 Characteristics of Diaphragm Pumps 250
12.2 Co 2 and Acid Gas Injection with Diaphragm Pumps 252
12.3 Blow-Down a Critical Process Step 255
12.4 Conclusions 258
References 259
13 Well Construction and Monitoring Considerations for AGI and CCS Wells 261
Ryan Bartko, Ben Banack and Henry Bland
13.1 Methods and Process 261
13.1.1 Pressure Measurement in Dissipation Zones 262
13.1.2 Considerations for 2D/3D/VSP Source and Sensor Design 264
13.1.3 Induced Seismicity Monitoring 265
13.1.4 Sensor Considerations and Magnitude Quantification 266
13.2 Conclusion 269
Acknowledgment 270
14 Downhole Pressure and Temperature Observations at a CO 2 Injector Under Differing Injection Conditions 271
Stephen Talman, Alireza Rangriz Shokri, Nathan Deisman and Rick Chalaturnyk
14.1 Introduction 271
14.2 Observations 272
14.3 Summary 276
References 276
15 Case Study for the Application of CCUS to a Waste-to-Energy Italian Plant 279
Stefania Moioli, Giorgia De Guido, Laura A. Pellegrini, Elisabetta Fasola, Davide Alberti and Adriano Carrara
15.1 Introduction 280
15.2 Co 2 Capture 281
15.2.1 Methodology for Process Design 281
15.2.2 Selection of the Pilot Plant Characteristics 283
15.3 Co 2 Utilization 286
15.4 Utilities Consumption and Economic Evaluation 287
15.4.1 Estimate of Utilities Consumptions 287
15.4.2 Preliminary Economic Analysis 289
15.5 Conclusions 289
References 290
16 Key Results of Tomakomai CCS Demonstration Project 293
Yoshihiro Sawada, Jiro Tanaka, Daiji Tanase, Takashi Sasaki and Chiyoko Suzuki
16.1 Introduction 293
16.1.1 Current Efforts of the Japanese Government for CCS 294
16.1.2 Key Results of Tomakomai CCS Demonstration Project 296
16.2 Overview of the Tomakomai Project 297
16.3 Key Results of Tomakomai Project 298
16.3.1 Co 2 Capture 298
16.3.2 Co 2 Injection and Monitoring 300
16.4 Public Outreach 306
16.5 Experience of Major Earthquake 308
16.6 Research, Development, and Demonstration of CO 2 Ship Transportation 311
16.6.1 R&D to Establish Technology for Ship Transportation of Liquefied CO 2 at a Scale of 1 Million Tonnes per Year 312
16.6.2 Demonstration of CO 2 Ship Transportation by a Ship with 999 Gross Tonnage 313
16.7 Conclusion 315
Acknowledgment 315
References 315
17 Some Results of ERTF Carbon Capture Pilot Plant 317
Ahmed Aboudheir, Neil Rathva, Lin Li and Walid ElMoudir
17.1 Introduction 318
17.2 ERTF Pilot Plant Process Description and Configuration 319
17.3 Offline and Online Analysis Methods and Measurements 320
17.4 Test Campaigns 321
17.5 Model Validation Against Pilot Plant Data and Results (Run #107 Capacity Target) 323
17.6 Model Validation Against Pilot Plant Data and Results (Run #108 Energy Target) 327
17.7 Model Validation Against Pilot Plant Data and Results (Run #109 Energy Target) 331
17.8 Conclusions and Recommendations 334
Acknowledgment 335
18 Evaluation of CO 2 Storage Potential in the Deep Mannville Coals of Alberta: Vertical Well Injection Testing 337
Yun Yang, Christopher R. Clarkson and Michael S. Blinderman
18.1 Introduction 338
18.2 Methodology 339
18.2.1 Field Planning 339
18.2.2 Numerical Simulation 340
18.3 Results and Discussion 342
18.3.1 Pre-Pilot Investigation 342
18.3.2 Calibration of the Numerical Model Using Field Injection Data 344
18.4 Conclusion 345
Acknowledgments 346
References 346
19 Dynamic Miscibility of H 2 S/co 2 with Reservoir Oil in a Middle Eastern Triassic Reservoir 347
Liaqat Ali and Ahmad J. Sultan
19.1 Introduction 347
19.2 Description of Reservoir Simulations 348
19.2.1 Acid Gas Composition 350
19.3 Results and Discussion 350
19.3.1 Injection and Production Performance 350
19.3.2 Dynamic Miscibility 353
19.3.2.1 Results of Dynamic Miscibility for Lower Rate Case (Case 1) 356
19.3.2.2 Results of Dynamic Miscibility for Higher Rate Case (Case 2) 357
19.3.2.3 Comparison of Dynamic Miscibility in the Two Cases 359
19.4 Conclusions 360
References 361
20 Quantitative Evaluation of Dynamic Solubility of Acid Gases in Deep Brine Aquifers 363
Liaqat Ali, Ahmad J. Sultan, Russell E. Bentley and K. Patel
20.1 Introduction 364
20.2 Technical Approach and Analysis 367
20.3 Description of Reservoir Simulations 368
20.4 Results and Discussion 369
20.4.1 AGI Into Ellenburger Formation 369
20.4.1.1 Dynamic Solubility in Ellenburger Formation 369
20.4.1.2 Ellenburger Formation Case E-1 370
20.4.1.3 Ellenburger Formation Case E-2 372
20.4.1.4 Comparison of the Cases and the Effect of Salinity 373
20.4.2 H 2 S/co 2 -EOR in Triassic Reservoir 375
20.4.2.1 Dynamic Solubility in Kurra Chine Formation 376
20.4.2.2 Kurra Chine Formation Case KC-1 376
20.4.2.3 Kurra Chine Formation Case KC-2 380
20.4.2.4 Comparison of the Kurra Chine Formation Cases 382
20.4.3 AGI Into Cherry Canyon Formation 384
20.4.3.1 Dynamic Solubility in Cherry Canyon Formation 384
20.4.4 AGI Into Wilcox Formation 387
20.4.4.1 Dynamic Solubility in Wilcox Formation 387
20.4.5 AGI Into Glen Rose Formation 389
20.4.5.1 Dynamic Solubility in Glen Rose Formation 389
20.5 Summary and Conclusions 392
Acknowledgment 393
References 394
21 Highlights of the Northeast BC Carbon Capture and Storage Atlas 401
John Xie, Natalie L. Sweet and Allison J. Gibbs
21.1 Study Workflow and Deliverables 403
21.2 Project Outcomes 404
21.3 Acknowledgments 408
References 408
22 A Novel Method for Calculating Average Formation Pressure of Gas-Reservoir-Type Underground Natural Gas Storage 411
Yubao Gao, Weiyao Zhu, Hongyang Chu and Ming Yue
22.1 Introduction 412
22.2 Methodology 414
22.2.1 Physical Model 414
22.2.2 Mathematical Model 415
22.3 Numerical Validation 418
22.4 Field Application 420
22.4.1 Geological Background 420
22.4.2 Model Application 420
22.5 Conclusions 423
22.6 Acknowledgments 423
References 424
Appendix A-Dimensionless Variable 425
23 Simulation of Multi-Zone Coupling Flow with Phase Change in Fractured Low Permeability Condensate Gas Reservoir 427
Wengang Bu, Weiyao Zhu and Debin Kong
23.1 Introduction 427
23.2 Methodology 428
23.2.1 Physical Model 428
23.2.2 Governing Equations 429
23.2.2.1 Two-Phase Zone 429
23.2.2.2 Transition Zone 429
23.2.2.3 Single-Phase Gas Zone 430
23.2.3 TPG and SS 430
23.2.4 Constraint Equations 431
23.2.5 State Equations 431
23.2.6 Initial and Boundary Conditions 432
23.3 Results and Discussion 432
23.3.1 Model Validation 432
23.3.2 Impact of Condensate 433
23.3.3 Impact of Fractures 435
23.3.4 TPG Distribution 435
23.4 Conclusions 436
Acknowledgments 436
References 436
Index 439
