1. Introduction; Sigrid Blömeke and Jan-Eric Gustafsson.- PART 1: Fundamental Questions in Standard Setting.- 2. Using Empirical Results to Validate Performance Standards; Michael Kane.- 3. Weaknesses of the Traditional View of Standard Setting and a Suggested Alternative; Mark Wilson and Maria Veronica Santelices.- 4. Standard Setting: Bridging the World of Research and Policy Making; Hans Anand Pant, Simon P. Tiffin-Richards and Petra Stanat.- 5. Standard Setting in PISA and TIMSS and How these Procedures Can Be Used Nationally; Rolf Vegar Olsen and Trude Nilsen.- 6. In the Science and Practice of Standard Setting: Where is the Science?? Barbara S. Plake.- PART 2: Standard Setting in the Nordic Countries.- 7. Standard Setting in Denmark: Challenges through Computer-based Adaptive Testing; Peter Allerup and Christian Christrup Kjeldsen.- 8. Experiences with Standards and Criteria in Sweden; Gudrun Erickson.- 9. Validating Standard Setting in Sweden: Comparing Judgmental and Statistical Linking; Anna Lind Pantzare.- 10. National Tests in Norway: An Undeclared Standard in Education? Idunn Seland and Elisabeth Hovdhaugen.- 11. Setting Standards for Multistage Tests of Norwegian for Adult Immigrants; Eli Moe and Norman Verhelst.- 12. Standard Setting in a Formative Assessment of Digital Responsibility Among Norwegian Eighth Graders; Ove Edvard Hatlevik and Ingrid Radtke.- 13. Assessment for Learning and Standards: A Norwegian Strategy and Its Challenges; Gustaf B. Skar, Ragnar Thygesen, and Lars Sigfred Evensen.- 14. How Do Finns Know? Educational Monitoring without Inspection and Comprehensive Testing; Mari-Pauliina Vainikainen, Helena Thuneberg, Jukka Marjanen, Jarkko Hautamäki, Sirkku Kupiainen and Risto Hotulainen.- PART 3: New Methodological Approaches to Standard Setting.- 15. The Data-Driven Direct Consensus (3DC) Procedure: A New Approach to Standard Setting; Jos Keuning, J. Hendrik Straat, Remco C.W. Feskens and Karen Keune.- 16. Using Professional Judgement: A New Approach to Equating Exam Standards; Allistair Pollitt.- 17. Closing the Loop: Providing Test Developers with Performance Level Descriptors So Standard Setters Can Do Their Job; Amanda A. Wolkowitz, James C. Impara and Chad W. Buckendahl.- 18. Setting Standards to a Scientific Literacy Test for Adults<; Linda I. Haschke, Nele N. Kampa, Inga Hahn, and Olaf Köller.